researchers have found forms of synesthesia quizlet

What is the evidence that meditation may slow some aspects of aging? Apart from being one of the rarest, misophonia is also one of the most troubling examples of synesthesia. What type of brain waveforms did Duke display right before being awakened? - ON AVERAGE: as we age we become less outgoing, less emotional and anxious, and less creative Do you go to the wrong train station in New York City because Grand Central has the same color as the 42nd Street address of Penn Station? . Three cases in point. Can Humans Detect Text by AI Chatbot GPT? Research on human perception leads to this conclusion: Perception is an inference we make about what the objects really are It difficult to tell whether a sound source is directly in front of you or behind. Qxd=6,00021PxPy+9Pz+101M. Omissions? After you roughly bump part of your bodysay your shin or your "funny bone"into something and experience pain as a result, you may help to decrease that sense of pain by rubbing the injured area. There were no other temporary differences and no permanent differences. How do written and visual forms of artistic expression vary and intersect? Chapter 4 - Sensation and Perception Flashcards | Quizlet As described by researchers Vilayanur S. Ramachandram and Edward M. Hubbard in Scientific American Mind, synesthesia's existence has been known since the late nineteenth century, but has received very little study. Can diet help improve depression symptoms? He takes her favorite stuffed rabbit out of her hands, holds it up, and then puts it behind his back. The balance sheet shows growth in receivables, 2003-2023 Chegg Inc. All rights reserved. People with synesthesia experience a "blending" of their senses when they see, smell, taste, touch or hear. Grapheme- colour synesthesia is the most-studied form of synesthesia. Privacy Policy Contact Us document.getElementById( "ak_js_3" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); JSTOR Daily provides context for current events using scholarship found in JSTOR, a digital library of academic journals, books, and other material. For mirror touch synesthetes, the capacity to resonate with anothers injury or distress runs far beyond the norm. 5+ years: cooperative play How Viagra became a new 'tool' for young men, Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction, Cardiovascular health: Insomnia linked to greater risk of heart attack. d. Determine the demand function and inverse demand function for good XXX. Fred's recall of the material will likely be best while ____. Writer Vladimir Nabokov had it, and he called it color hearing.. Researchers have found forms of synesthesia that affect every sensory - ON AVERAGE: as we age we become more agreeable, dependable and accepting of life, Climacteric: period between 45-60 yrs when women lose their capacity to sexually reproduce and men's capacity to reproduce declines, Menopause: women: Cessation of ovulation and menstruation, Men: decline in sperm cells, Both sexes have somewhat decreased sex drive, attachment & deprivation study with monkeys, need contact not just food, research shows that touching and massaging infants leads to significant physical and emotional benefits, Jean Piaget's stage theories of development, all children go through four cognitive stages at approximately the same age regardless of what culture in which they live, birth - 2 years, infants develop a sense of the world through their senses and motor activity. Why? Synesthesia is a cross-consciousness mechanism that usually refers to similar sensations that are evoked between stimuli of different senses. In essence, this suggests that in grapheme-colour synesthetes, for example, the visual/colour portion of the brain retained excess neuroconnections with the semantic/letter-processing area during development. Some scientists posit, for example, that synesthetes are better at distinguishing between smells as well as between colors. Learning a Second Language Linked to Synesthesia | Live Science Individuals with grapheme-color synesthesia should be considerably faster and more accurate than controls at detecting the hidden shape. Differentiate between sensation and perception. In fact, Nabokov who was fluent in several languages reported experiencing the same letters in different colors and textures, depending on the language that he was using at any one time. As described by researchers Vilayanur S. Ramachandram and Edward M. Hubbardin Scientific American Mind, synesthesias existence has been known since the late nineteenth century, but has received very little study. Graph the demand curve for good XXX. Asha is in Piaget's sensorimotor stage of cognitive development and has not yet mastered object permanence. During the closing years of the 1800s, scientists and artists understood the field on some level. Misophonia. They should happen every single time one invokes one of the two senses, over a span of time, and be memorable experiences: Letters are associated with the same very specific shade of a color every time theyre read, and sounds always evoke the matching texture, even months later. Which is as if genes were painting in aquarelle., Vladimir Nabokov in an interview for the BBC in 1962. The estimated occurrence of synesthesia ranges from rarer than one in 20,000 to as prevalent as one in 200. Synesthetes hear colors, feel sounds and taste shapes. Synesthetes reported that these arrays organized themselves into distinct rows or columns depending on whether the rows or columns of characters were the same synesthetic color. As much as 1% of the population may be synesthetes, and perhaps unsurprisingly they are heavily concentrated in creative fields such as art or music. Which of the following best describes the way it was experienced by Cytowic's friend? One possibility is that synesthesia might arise from some kind of anomalous cross-wiring between brain areas that are normally segregated in nonsynesthetic individuals. Knowing what you value will help you build the most meaningful life possible. That is, if the letter A recalls the color blue, for example, this perception will never change. The most commonly reported types of synesthesia, however, are color-graphemic, in which letters, numbers, or geometric shapes are linked to colors or patterns, and color-auditory synesthesia, in which various sounds immediately recall specific colors, shapes, or textures. The most difficult type of question for him on the exam, in terms of memory retrieval, will most likely be ____. I like to write music, she told us, and because I see the notes visually, I think that helps create a nice aural balance as well its like another mental display thats available when trying to mix [sounds].. You notice that revenues are increasing rapidly and that income is at an all-time high. Some say this is associated with greater connectivity in the brain. By the time doctors are able to detect Alzheimer's Disease, the disease has already progressed significantly, cognitive deficits are problematic, but most patients can do day to day tasks, patients show significant impairment and show rudimentary cognitive abilities, patients show severe cognitive and physical deterioration, Drug Related Public Service Announcement Main Goal, The hospital scene is designed to make you view meth as dangerous, which should make you reluctant to try it. These are some examples of how synesthesia might manifest, which involve cross-talking between your senses. The movement of hair cells in the vestibular system results in the production of signals in the auditory nerve. What is the latest research on the form of cancer Jimmy Carter has? Rather, its a fresh way of experiencing the world through a mixing of the senses that is unique to the individual. Some synesthetes perceive texture in response to sight, hear sounds in response to smells, or associate shapes with flavors. The study authors also concluded that this kind of perception may nevertheless be more common than we would have thought, saying that the prevalence of synesthesia [seemed to be] 88 times higher than previously assumed.. Review of Previous Research Understanding Synesthesia Baron-Cohen and Harrison (1997) created a context for understanding synesthesia. What are the implications for the rest of us? Approximately an hour after falling asleep, Daisy's roommate repeatedly shakes her shoulder and asks Daisy to move her car out of the driveway. In one such task, people are asked to say the color of the ink a word is printed in as quickly as possible (for example, responding "pink" to and "blue" to ). Mills: You've done research that's found that even though most people do not have synesthesia, they do have cross sensory . After early adulthood (age 25), body begins a slow decline Because synesthesia is not widely studied, not all researchers agree on these standards. Matt remembers visiting the Universal theme park and SeaWorld in Florida with his family when he was 8 years old. Assume an income tax rate of 40%. - End of adolescence is unclear: Adulthood only begins when established adult relationships and adult work patterns, developmental point where individual becomes physically capable of sexual reproduction, girls: ovulation and menstruation, menarche is the first menstrual period that averages around 12 years and 6 months. children act in sex-typed ways during this stage, 7-11 years, physical development is when growth is slower, but continued improvement in strength and coordination, formal education begins, social development is when peers become very important, and most friendships are same sex, - Rapid physical growth and change Most people experience their senses one at a time. according to the excerpt what is one of the major problems in detecting AD? The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model refers to the location of permanent memories. Theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes. Vision 1 - Learning Objectives. Synesthetes as a group are not mentally ill. Students may hear a bell ring. Continue reading with a Scientific American subscription. Though were no closer to discovering a true sixth sense, research suggests that synesthesia may confer some sensory enhancements. Learn about the phenomenon called synaesthesia through neurological research at the California Institute of Technology, https://www.britannica.com/science/synesthesia, National Library of Medicine - Synesthesia: an introduction, University of Washington - Neuroscience for Kids - Synesthesia. Researchers have found forms of synesthesia that affect every sensory modality. It is estimated that 4 percent of humans have some form of synesthesia, though the percentage who have multiples types is much smaller. Old Medication, New Use: Can Prazosin Curb Drinking? 2-5 years: parallel play which is where they play next to someone but not together Regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions or behaviors, Blood pressure, heart rate, appetite, secretion of hormones and digestive enzymes, sensory acuity, elimination, body's response to medication. In Dr. Weber's research, he found that ________ ________ displayed different patterns of activity in brain regions related to ________ while watching the PSAs. Teachers and others should be aware of the condition, however, so they dont dismiss synesthetes descriptions of the world. low-risk and high-risk individuals; persuasion. Which way best describes the way it was experienced by Cytowic's friend, taste elicited a tactile sensation in the hands. Synesthesia is a fascinating puzzle that highlights many angles of current brain research. How can we describe the sleep pattern of typical college students? When shown a display consisting of monochromatic digits, we found that a synesthete could quickly find the target because for him was orange but was green (see image). The hospital scene is designed to make you view meth as dangerous, which should make you reluctant to try it. Whatever its etiology, synesthesia provides cognitive neuroscientists with a unique opportunity to learn more about how the brain creates our perceptual reality. Psych exam 2 Flashcards | Quizlet In 1987, a team led by Baron-Cohen found the first hard evidence that synesthetes' experiences are consistent across time. JSTOR is a digital library for scholars, researchers, and students. This review summarizes and reflects . Round to the nearest thousandth. A Perceptual Oddity Can Help Explain Synesthetic Experiences, A Striking Link Between Vitamin D Levels and Omicron. Some scientists have suggested that everyone is born synesthetic but that the typical developmental trajectory results in these highly interconnected brain areas becoming far more segregated. In fact, synesthesia can decrease over time. The _______ theory provides some insight as to why rubbing the area helps to lower the pain that you feel. All rights reserved. And what does the early modern search for the answer to this question tell us about the scientific method we colloquially accept today? What researchers have discovered, however, is that most synesthetes tend to associate high-pitched sounds with light, bright colors. The geography of the brain offers clues. The researchers . For example, is both blue (real color) and light green (synesthetic color). Jordan is experiencing ____. If so, you might have synesthesia. To demonstrate the perceptual reality of synesthetic colors, researchers have introduced synesthetic color differences into a variety of traditional visual-perception tasks. At December 31, 2016, the book value of the building was$28 million and its tax basis was $13 million. For instance, they may be able to taste letters (lexical-gustatory synesthesia) or have a strong spatial experience when thinking about time units (spatial time units/sequence-space synesthesia). What results would you expect when comparing participants with grapheme-color synesthesia against controls? Jordan typically has at least three cups of coffee throughout the day. The colorful world of synesthesia - Science News Explores document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Why does it happen? The Many Types Of Synesthesia Explained | BetterHelp Changes in awareness produced by sleep, meditation, hypnosis, and drugs. Where do the axons of the auditory nerve then form connections? 3 (2005), pp. The exact nature of the connections is still unclear. A "loud shirt doesn't actually produce a sound, a "warm color" doesn't actually evoke a change in temperature, and "bitter cold" doesn't actually produce a taste. O Visual stimuli elicited the sensation of a taste. Maureen Seaberg on December 1, 2020 in Sensorium. Why would individuals with graphme-color synesthesia be faster and more accurate when detecting a hidden shape? The processing of memories goes through three areas: 1) Sensory memory 2) Short term memory (STM) 3) Long term memory (LTM), level 1, contains raw sensations, prior to perception, very large capacity, material here only briefly, a brief visual "photo" of what you are seeing (lasts only a fraction of a second), brief auditory memory of what you are hearing (lasts 3-4 seconds), level 2, very limited capacity (7 +/- 2 chunks of info) very limited time (approximately 30 seconds) can keep info here longer with rehearsal, and can store more info here with chunking, level 3, theoretically unlimited storage, detail level varies, info may be permanent, but can be distorted, can feed back into short term memory, memories of common physical procedures/muscle memory, mostly accessed implicitly (without thinking) highly robust to amnesia, memory of things that we have personally experienced (personal episodes), memory of general knowledge, facts, word meanings, the gateway to memory, the save button, processes memories from STM to LTM, used for explicit memory like recalling events, words, smells, or sights, transferred while we sleep, stores implicit memories (automatic), such as classically conditioned responses and motor movements (procedural memories), highly rich, highly detailed memories of a significant moment in your life, and we easily remember the emotions associated with these memories, but the actual details of the event are prone to error, Space Shuttle Challenger exploded killing all the astronauts on board, asked students to describe in detail when/how they heard, how they felt, etc. Her brother hands her back the rabbit, which stops the crying, but he doesn't understand why she didn't just look behind his back for the toy. Diaz Company issued $180,000 face value of bonds on January 1, 2016. Researchers have found forms of synesthesia that affect every sensory modality. The geography of the brain offers clues. From an evolutionary perspective, there is no reason for it not to persist in the population since it does no harm. Maybe this question doesnt make sense to you. One study, for instance, worked with a cohort of color-graphemic synesthetes to look into natural language processing. Yes, there does seem to be a genetic component to synesthesia, which can be passed down from parent to child. What does Gestalt psychology emphasize? He is, however, awakened by his roommate opening the refrigerator door. In her case, however, it comes with some unique twists. Friday for instance is brown, when F is green and Thursday is maroon, when T is indigoI see the days of the week as though theyre on a ladder, with Saturday and Sunday as the top two steps Ive heard that some others see this as well!. [W]e discovered one day that my son [] sees letters in colors, too. Researchers observing sleep patterns find that approximately 20% of college students suffer from a sleep disorder. Thanks for reading Scientific American. Why do most high-risk individuals tend to disregard PSAs and view them negatively? Understanding Synesthesia and Impact for Learning In another common form of synesthesia, people associate different numbers with specific colors; both numbers and colors are processed in the fusiform gyrus (among other) portions of the brain. From a specialist point of view, synesthesia is defined as a neurological condition, as it changes a persons perception of, and interaction with, certain aspects of the surrounding world. (Perhaps you see the letter A as pink, or maybe the smell of gasoline looks like a brown fog.) They are almost certainly in the brain, however. Nicolas Davidenko Ph.D. on August 31, 2020 in Illusions, Delusions, and Reality. Psych 100 Test - Early & Modern Schools of Th, Elliot Aronson, Robin M. Akert, Timothy D. Wilson. Synesthesia: Opening the Doors of Perception Baby Asha is sitting on the floor when her older brother sits down next to her. Synesthesia remains an area of active research, because of both its own uncomprehended nature and its neurophysiological similarity to more detrimental conditions, such as autism and schizophrenia. Maybe they touch a rock and also experience it as an odor. Student at Pine Crest School, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Synesthesia research began to flourish again in the 1980s, when technical equipment was able to demonstrate that it was indeed a palpably discrete genetic condition. During the first 2 weeks following conception. Many of them are designed in a test-retest format. Answer originally posted on June 17, 2002. From street signs to our national flags, colors are an integral part of society. In Dr. Weber's research, he found that ________ ________ displayed different patterns of activity in brain regions related to ________ while watching the PSAs. A biological determinant may be partially at work in certain cases of synesthesia, because the condition tends to run in families; moreover, nearly six times as many women as men report synesthesia. "The Czechs . Tasty colorful sounds: How people with synesthesia experience the world Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Pretax accounting income for 2016 was$45 million. According to the excerpt, what is one of the major problems in detecting Alzheimer's Disease? A certain color is constant for them with a certain number. A person who reports a lifelong history of synesthesia is known as a synesthete. They often (though not always) consider synesthesia to be a gift, allowing them to see the world through an integration of multiple senses that is truly unique. It causes no harm (although some synesthetes report difficulty driving while listening to music), so the urgency was lacking. 2023 Scientific American, a Division of Springer Nature America, Inc. Though English philosopher John Locke and physician Thomas Woolhouse appear to have mentioned synesthesia or synesthesia-like conditions as early as 168990 and 1710, respectively, it generally is accepted that German physician Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs provided the first medical report of synesthesia, in a thesis published in 1812. By his own account, Nabokov saw each letter in different colors, despite the fact that text was printed all-black on white paper. Researchers at Boston University in Massachusetts have suggested that around "1 in every 100,000 people to 1 in every 5,000 people" have one or more forms of synesthesia. The "magic number 7 plus or minus 2" was first identified by psychologist ____. Research has shown signs of a genetic component; there is some debate over whether everyone is born with some degree of synesthesia, or if its a special perception of the world that only some individuals share. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Sensation and perception are the underlying processes operating in visual illusions. The Aquila Digital Community DNA analyses have suggested that several chromosome regions may be involved in synesthesia. Abstract Synesthesia is a neurological disorder that has to do with the 'union of the senses.' The literature reveals that students with synesthesia are affected with various degrees of severity. But for colorblind individuals, this can cause serious challenges. Our interviewee said that this happens to her, as well. As far back as I can remember, she told MNT, I would experience music on the radio as a colorful landscape of moving shapes in my head, whereas speech would invoke mental images of a single moving line of color a bit like a floating stroke of spray paint, hanging in the air., [The sound produced by] each [musical] instrument has its own color Flutes are sky-blue whereas an oboe is more indigo The sound of a piano seems to me like iridescent white cubes moving around in clusters as though theyre floating in water.. From the mechanisms of perception to the developmental processes of infants, looking at how synesthetes interact with their daily reality tells us more about those of us without the ability as well. Natalia, who suffers from epilepsy, experiences a seizure in which she completely loses consciousness, stops breathing, and thrashes about uncontrollably. And some researchers even speculate that the conditions which lead to synesthesia may be a window into how abstract thought developed from disparate senses. A study that was conducted in 2006 by several researchers based at the University of Sussex in the United Kingdom indicated that color-graphemic synesthesia may be experienced by just over 1 percent of individuals. Unfortunately, the methods used to combat lack of sleep may make the problem worse. -2 months: 1st social behavior (smile at caregivers) New data reveal an unexpected risk factor for the highly contagious Omicron as well as other COVID variants. In synesthesia, one sense can be experienced at the same time as another. Irrigation and antibiotics might be appropriate treatments for an animal bitebut maybe youd prefer to sip a steaming lichen-and-pepper latte instead. [3] [4] [5] Researchers believe that this cross-media . Psychology Today 2023 Sussex Publishers, LLC. However, not all types of synesthesia have been documented or studied, and the cause remains unclear. Media like books, films, and TV shows often take advantage of the multimodal mental imagery associated with synesthesia (which explains the popularity of cooking and baking shows). On January 1, 2013, Ameen Company purchased a building for $36 million. JSTOR, the JSTOR logo, and ITHAKA are registered trademarks of ITHAKA. The synesthete that MNT interviewed explained to us that she did not, in fact, realize for a long time that her condition was unique, having assumed that most people experience something similar. Being able to make these judgments helps women focus their energy on partners that are more likely to be interested in mating. Although many purported uses of hypnosis fail to be supported by reliable and valid research, the _______ has shown that hypnotic suggestion can lead to reorganization of cognitive processes. Knowledge awaits. I always knew that my specific coloring of letters and numbers was personal to me, but presumed everyone else had a similar code of their own, she told us. boys: testes and penis grows, shoulders broaden, voice deepens, growth of pubic hair and facial hair, adolescent emotional and social development, 3 problem areas of adolescent and emotional social development, 1. parent child conflict: dating, behavior, and social activities -4-9 months: anger and separation anxiety O Visual stimuli elicited the sensation of a taste. Some people are romantically or sexually attracted to objects like swords, trains, bridges, or walls. As some specialists will explain, the main characteristic of this condition the association of two complementary sensations or perceptions arise[s] spontaneously during [early] development.. Synesthesia often appears during early childhood. Thus, synesthetic color differences can facilitate performance on tasks in which real color differences facilitate performance for nonsynesthetes and can impair performance on tasks in which real color differences impair performance for nonsynesthetes. The inhibition of which neurotransmitter contributes to the onset of seizure activity? Such synesthetic colors are not elicited by meaning, because 2 may be orange but two is blue and 7 may be red but seven is green. An intensive, preconscious empathy is the default setting of certain autistic people, enabling them to "merge" into their surroundings. The causes of synesthesia also remain unknown. Duke is exhausted and plops down on the couch. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). 2004-2023 Healthline Media UK Ltd, Brighton, UK, a Red Ventures Company. and accounts payable have declined. One rather striking observation is that such synesthetes all seem to experience very different colors for the same graphemic cues. Sometimes scientists end up turning into inventors throughout the course of their research. Modern scientists have known about synesthesia since 1880, when Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, published a paper in Nature on the phenomenon. O Tastes elicited a visual sensation of music notes O Auditory sensations elicited visual sensations. Can a simple mirror-box experiment give you the sensation of having a sixth finger? When she is having a bad day, she knows that a few bites of chocolate will always make her feel better. O Visual stimuli elicited the sensation of a taste. synesthesia, neuropsychological trait in which the stimulation of one sense causes the automatic experience of another sense. 1. What does he spend most of his day doing? Understanding of sleep increased by the study of: brain waves, eye movements, chin muscle tension, heart rate, respiration rate, Lightest sleep, hypnagogic state, myoclonia (startle awake, feeling of falling) theta waves occur, Somewhat more deeply asleep (mid asleep) - Sleep spindles occur - K complex occur, Deep sleep, delta waves 20% slow wave deep sleep begins, heart and breathing slow and regular, Deepest sleep, delta waves reach nearly 100%, blood pressure & brain activity at lowest points in 24 hour period, Called active sleep, paradoxical sleep, or dream sleep (20-25% of a nights sleep), Intense brain activity, brain temperature rises rapidly, sexual excitement in both genders, epinephrine release leads to increase in blood pressure, heart rate respiration, Body appears to be calm, large muscles become paralyzed, eyes dart around, dreaming occurs in 80% of people, consolidation of learning and memory (all night studying doesn't help), perceptual or motor skills increase after 8-10 hours of sleep, always get at least 3 hours of sleep each night, sleep walking, occurs during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep, sleeptalking, occurs during any sleep stage, is more frequent among children, happens during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep, usually begins with piercing scream, are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep, partially wake up during REM Sleep, unable to move or speak, characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep (associated with sleep paralysis), periods during sleep when breathing stops, the individual must awaken briefly in order to breathe, difficulty falling or staying asleep, sleep that is light, rests or of poor quality, believed dreams satisfy unconscious sexual and aggressive desires and must be disguised, the content of a dream as recalled by the dreamer, the plot of the dream, dreams are an expression of ongoing concerns and can resolve or clarify current problems, relate images in dreams to things in your waking life, dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of the random brain activity during REM sleep, we construct a story around the brain activity, any substance that alters mood perception or thought, needing larger amounts of the substance to achieve the same subjective effect, physical responses to the removal of habitually used substance, a compulsive physical or psychological dependence on a substance that continues despite negative consequences, Speed up the central nervous system, low moderate levels are exciting , confident, and euphoric, high levels are anxious, jittery, and hyper, overdose are convulsions, heart failure, death, caffeine, meth, cocaine, nicotine, ritalin/adderall, ecstasy and Molly, slow down the central nervous system, low-moderate levels are calm, drowsy, reduced anxiety, and inhibitions, high levels are insensitivity to pain and other senses, and overdose are irregular heartbeat or death, derived from the poppy plant, mimics the body's endorphins, can reduce anxiety or cause euphoria, and are common pain killers like opium, heroine, methadone, morphine, oxycontin, heroine, hydrocondone, disrupt normal thought process, reactions can be pleasant or not, some produce visual hallucinations like LSD, mushrooms, PCP, and Molly can have hallucinogenic effects, basically give schizophrenia for a short period of time, does not fit neatly into any class of drugs, some stimulating effects like euphoria or relaxing affects, but could make sensations more intense, and too much can interfere with memory, coordination, concentration and reaction times, induced altered consciousness, state of deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility, can have analgesic effects (pain killing), induced altered consciousness, rooted in ancient eastern religions, state of alert relaxation, improves immune system, lowers BP and cholesterol, creates a general feeling of well being, organizing and interpreting the information, the smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected (the weakest detectable stimulus), the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, must have light to see, light is composed of waves that give us hue, brightness, and saturation, complexity of light (gives us pure versus paler colors), ROY G BIV, can only see red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, blue has shorter wavelengths and red has longer wavelengths, protective coating on the surface of the eye, the colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light that enters, the transparent portion of the eye that focuses light onto the retina, images fall here, sensory receptor cells are here, receptor cells that code info about light and dark (located outside the center of the retina) 120 million cells in each eye, receptor cells that code info about color (located at the center of the retina) 6 million cells in each eye, the spot where the cones are concentrated (images focused directly onto the fovea are clearest because of the high concentration of cones), the nerve that carries visual neural messages to the brain (the area where the optic nerve attaches contains no rods or curves and therefore is a blind spot), the first level of color processing, there are 3 different kinds of cones in the eye and each respond to light in either red, blue, or green wavelengths therefore all sensation of color result from stimulating a combination of these 3 cones, yet doesn't explain red/green color blindness or color after images, second level of color processing, in addition to 3 types of cones (cone for red, blue, and green) there are "opponent process mechanisms" which respond to either the red green or the yellow-blue wavelengths, when we see something, whatever is the center of our attention is the figure, whatever is in the background is the ground (we can change our perception of the same image by switching the figure and the ground), 4 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization, proximity, closure, similarity, continuation, things that are close together are grouped together in the mind as if they belong together, incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete because our brain fills in missing information, similar things are sense as being related, images are seen in ways that produce smooth continuation, the perception of objects remains unchanged, even when the sensation of the object is changing, we understand the brightness of an object does not change even when the object is dimly lit, we understand that colors do not change despite different conditions of light, cues in the environment that suggest depth and can be seen by only one eye, linear perspective parallel lines appear to come together as they go off into the distance (railroad tracks), eyes angle inward as an object gets closer to us, because each retina is a few inches apart, they have slightly different images and this helps with depth perception, pain messages are sent through two distinct pathways: rapid (first pain) and slow (second pain), there are neural gates (endorphins) that control the transmission of pain impulses that gate can open (slow pain messages are not blocked, therefore we experience pain) or closed (slow pain messages are blocked, and we do not experience pain), amputees often feel the amputated limb as if it is still there and sometimes feel pain in the missing limb, the neurons in charge of missing limb don't know that it is gone - but eyes see that the limb is gone - mismatch between eyes and neurons, Allows the eyes to see the missing limb as "working", stops mismatch between neurons and eyes, Atkinson-Shriffin proposed this model in 1968.

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